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Foreign policy and world bodies

Government · WAEC and JAMB · SS2 and SS3

Questions here come in two shapes: the objectives and determinants of Nigeria's foreign policy with Africa as its centrepiece, and the aims, organs and achievements of ECOWAS, the AU, the UN, OPEC and the Commonwealth. Keep concrete Nigerian examples ready, because generalities score poorly.

What you need to know

  • Foreign policy is the set of principles and actions by which a state conducts its relations with other states and with international organisations in pursuit of its own national interest.
  • The declared objectives of Nigerian foreign policy include the defence of sovereignty and territorial integrity, the promotion of African unity and the total liberation and dignity of Africa, the promotion of international cooperation and world peace, the protection of Nigerians abroad, and the pursuit of economic development through beneficial external relations.
  • Africa as the centrepiece of Nigerian foreign policy is the single most examinable idea in this topic: Nigeria treats African interests as its first external priority. The practical expressions are support for liberation movements in southern Africa and against apartheid, peacekeeping in the region, the leading role in founding ECOWAS, and technical assistance to other African states.
  • Determinants of Nigerian foreign policy include its size, population and oil wealth, its colonial history and Commonwealth membership, the nature of the government of the day, whether civilian or military, public opinion and the press, the state of the national economy, its geographical position in West Africa, and the character of the international system at the time.
  • Non-alignment has been a stated principle since independence, meaning Nigeria refuses permanent attachment to any power bloc and judges issues on their merits. In practice Nigeria has also pursued good neighbourliness, respect for the sovereign equality of states, non-interference in the internal affairs of others, and peaceful settlement of disputes.
  • Nigeria's nationalisation measures against firms linked to apartheid and its material and diplomatic support for liberation movements made opposition to apartheid a defining feature of its foreign policy during the years of white minority rule in southern Africa.
  • ECOWAS, the Economic Community of West African States, was established in 1975 by the Treaty of Lagos, with Nigeria taking the leading role in its creation. Its aims are economic integration of the sub-region, free movement of persons, goods, services and capital, a common external tariff and eventual monetary cooperation, and cooperation in agriculture, industry, transport and energy.
  • ECOWAS later added a security dimension. Its monitoring group, ECOMOG, intervened in the conflicts in Liberia and Sierra Leone in the 1990s, with Nigeria providing the bulk of the troops and funding, and the body has since taken positions against unconstitutional changes of government in member states.
  • ECOWAS faces persistent problems: the colonial language divide between anglophone, francophone and lusophone members, differing currencies and levels of development, rival loyalties to other regional arrangements, member states failing to pay their contributions or to implement protocols, poor transport links, and border closures and smuggling that cut against free trade.
  • The African Union replaced the Organisation of African Unity, which had been founded in 1963 to promote African unity, defend the sovereignty of member states and eradicate colonialism. The AU was launched in 2002 with a broader mandate covering economic integration, democratic governance, human rights, peace and security, and it may intervene in a member state in grave circumstances, which the OAU could not.
  • The United Nations, founded in 1945, works to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve cooperation in solving economic, social and humanitarian problems, and promote respect for human rights. Nigeria joined on independence in 1960 and has been among the larger contributors of troops to UN peacekeeping operations.
  • The principal organs of the UN are the General Assembly, where every member has one vote; the Security Council, with permanent members holding the veto and non-permanent members elected for two-year terms, Nigeria having served several such terms; the Economic and Social Council; the Secretariat headed by the Secretary-General; the International Court of Justice at The Hague; and the Trusteeship Council, which has suspended operation since the last trust territory gained independence.
  • OPEC, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, was founded in 1960 to coordinate the petroleum policies of its members, secure fair and stable prices, and ensure a steady supply to consumers and a fair return to investors. Nigeria joined in 1971, and OPEC production quotas directly affect Nigerian federal revenue, since oil supplies the greater part of it.
  • The Commonwealth is a voluntary association of states, most of them former British territories, cooperating on trade, education, technical assistance, democratic governance and sport. Nigeria joined at independence in 1960, was suspended in 1995 following the execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa and other Ogoni activists, and was readmitted in 1999 on the return to civilian rule. Nigeria is also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and of the African Development Bank.

Key terms

Foreign policy
The principles and strategies a state adopts in its dealings with other states and international bodies in pursuit of its national interest.
National interest
The set of goals, chiefly security, economic well-being and prestige, that a state pursues in its relations with the outside world.
Non-alignment
The policy of refusing permanent military or ideological attachment to any power bloc and judging international issues on their individual merits.
Africa as the centrepiece
The principle that African affairs and African interests take first place in the formulation and conduct of Nigeria's foreign policy.
Diplomacy
The conduct of relations between states by negotiation and through accredited representatives, as distinct from the use of force.
Economic integration
The process by which neighbouring states reduce barriers between their economies, through free movement of goods, services, capital and persons and a common external tariff.
Veto power
The right of each permanent member of the UN Security Council to block a substantive decision by voting against it.

Worked examples

State the objectives of ECOWAS and explain four problems hindering its effectiveness. (Essay question)

  1. Give the founding fact first: ECOWAS was established in 1975 by the Treaty of Lagos, with Nigeria taking the lead, and set out its aims.
  2. List the objectives: economic integration of West Africa, free movement of persons, goods, services and capital, a common external tariff, cooperation in agriculture, industry, transport, energy and communications, and the raising of living standards.
  3. Add the later security role, since ECOMOG operations in Liberia and Sierra Leone are a standard example of ECOWAS acting beyond economics.
  4. Turn to the problems and give each with an explanation of why it bites: the language and colonial-legacy divide between anglophone and francophone states; differing currencies and uneven levels of development, which make a common market hard to build; failure of member states to pay contributions or implement agreed protocols; and poor transport and communication links across the sub-region.
  5. Add political instability and frequent unconstitutional changes of government, which divert the body from economic work, and close with one line on Nigeria's disproportionate burden in funding and troops.

Explain what is meant by Africa as the centrepiece of Nigeria's foreign policy, and give three examples of how it has been applied.

  1. Define the principle in one sentence, making clear it is a priority ordering rather than a rejection of relations outside Africa.
  2. Explain the reasons behind it: Nigeria's size and resources, its position in West Africa, and the belief that its own security and prosperity depend on a stable continent.
  3. Give the examples with substance attached, not just names: opposition to apartheid and support for liberation movements in southern Africa; the leading role in founding ECOWAS and funding it; and the provision of troops and money for peacekeeping, including ECOMOG in Liberia and Sierra Leone and contributions to UN operations in Africa.
  4. Add technical assistance to other African states as a further example where room allows.
  5. Close with one critical line, noting the argument that the policy has cost Nigeria heavily without matching domestic benefit, since the examiner rewards evaluation.

The mistake to avoid

Candidates confuse the OAU with the AU and write as though they are the same body with the same powers. The OAU, founded in 1963, held strictly to non-interference in the internal affairs of member states; the AU, launched in 2002, may intervene in grave circumstances and takes a firm position against unconstitutional changes of government. Candidates also describe ECOWAS as a purely military body because of ECOMOG; it is primarily an economic community that later took on a security role.

In the exam

Keep one line ready for each organisation covering when it was formed, its main aim, its principal organs and one Nigerian connection, because questions are usually built from exactly those four. Where you are unsure of a founding year, write the decade or describe the circumstances rather than guessing, since a wrong date is marked wrong while an accurate description is not. Always answer organisation questions with Nigeria in view, naming what Nigeria contributed or gained.